An Alternative Approach to the Hindu Literary PedagogyReading Nandini Sahu’s “Hindu Studies: Foundations and Frameworks” by Dinesh Kumar Mali
When I recently read the book – “Hindu Studies: Foundation and Frameworks”, written by Professor Nandani Sahu, I thought, ‘What was the need to write this book in our country, where the majority of Hindu people are very well-acquainted with traditions, philosophies, histories, and cultural expressions associated with Hinduism, one of the world’s oldest living religions?’ But after having gone through it, I found that this book is very much essential in the academic field because it encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including religious studies, philosophy, history, anthropology, linguistics, and art, aiming to understand Hinduism’s texts, practices, and societal impact.
It is also true that our new generation is distancing itself from their religion, culture, scriptures, and even heritage of excellent arts. They feel ashamed to call themselves ‘Hindu.’ The main reason behind it is that neither are we very well conversant or have scientific attitude, nor have we made any arrangements to educate our progeny about our religion.
It is a ridiculous thing that the word ‘Hindu’ also is not our own word. It is found neither in Sanskrit nor in Hindi or any other Indian language. It is an Arabic word which means ‘Kafir’, ‘Thief’ etc. Previously, ‘Hindu’ was a geographical name derived from Indus for the people living beyond the Indus River to up to the boundaries of the Indian Ocean, but later on, it was colloquially converted to represent the religion of the people of this land. Due to this, Sage Vivekanand considered the ‘Hindu’ word insignificant because in this geographical area, there are also many other living religions. Presently, the Indus River is flowing through Pakistan, so how can Pakistani be treated as Hindus? But modern Rambhadracharya blind Saint illustrate that word ‘Hindu’ is refered in Bruhspati Agam “ हिमालयात् समारभ्य यावत् इन्दु सरोवरम्। तं देवनिर्मितं देशं हिन्दुस्थान प्रचक्षते॥”- (बृहस्पति आगम) i.e. which clearly states that ‘Starting from the Himalayas till Indusarovar (Indian Ocean), this God-made country is called ‘Hindusthan’. Due to this situation, nowadays, there is a trend that most modern saints, including Dhirendra Shastri Bageshwar Dham are using the term ‘Sanatan Dharm’ in place of ‘Hindu Dharma’ in his book “What is Sanatan Dharm?”. But it is again not true as Sanatan means non-changeable, but old Hindu dharma, say, Vedic dharma, is quite different from present Hindu dharma.
Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru had also pointed out in his book ‘Discovery of India,’ that using the word ‘Hindi’ was more appropriate for representing people living in this region, instead of the word ‘Hindu,’ in tune of ‘Gujarati,’ ‘Bihari,’ ‘Bengali’ for representing people as well as language of Gujrat, Bihar and Bengal, etc. But nowadays word ‘Hindi’ is used for one of the Indian languages only, whereas a few lines of the poem of Iqbal, ‘Hindi Hain Hum, Hindustan Hamara’ are noteworthy. Moreover, for the first time, Magasthenese wrote the book ‘Indica’ for representing communities of this area, which subsequently became the word ‘India’. And our Constitution adopted this word, saying – “India that is called Bharat.” Still, there is a controversy that the word ‘India’ is a borrowed word, and ‘Bharat’ is the name of the Arya King Bharat. So, the Dravidians are raising their objections to this name. Thus, Hindu Studies has become a battleground for ideological conflicts in the past few decades. Some scholars are accused of being too sympathetic to ‘Hindutva’ (Hindu nationalist) agendas, while others are criticized for ‘demonizing’ Hinduism to fit secular or leftist narratives. The difference between ‘Hindutva’ and ‘Hinduism’ is explicitly shown in a recent book – ‘The New Icon: Savarkar and the Facts’, written by renowned journalist and former Union Minister Arun Shourie. This politicization can compromise academic neutrality. Professor Nandini Sahu wrote 10 chapters for this book.
The first chapter is ‘Introduction to Hindu Studies,’ in which Nandini Sahu mentions about the history of Hindutva based on various articles and books of renowned writers such as Ranjeet Guha, Deepesh Chakravarty, Romila Thapar, Arvind Sharma, J.N. Mohanty, M.N. Srinivas, Wendy Doniger, Louis Dumont, including great Hindu Philosophers Vivekanand and Arvind Ghosh -whose contributions are immense in taking Hinduism to newer heights in the world scenario. As a result, Hinduism’s influence extended beyond India—through yoga, meditation, and cultural exchanges—this chapter addresses a globally significant tradition relevant to both practitioners and non-practitioners. According to Professor Sahu, Hindu Studies has emerged as a formal field largely through colonial scholarship in the 18th and 19th centuries, with European Indologists like Max Müller translating Vedic texts. It carries the baggage of Orientalism — sometimes romanticizing or misrepresenting Hinduism as a static, mystical’ tradition. Its roots are diffused, reflecting Hinduism’s lack of a single founder or centralized doctrine.
In the 2nd chapter of the book titled as “The Hindu Texts and Contexts”, Professor Sahu draws from an immense body of texts — Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, epic Mahabharata and Ramayana and many more—offering deep philosophical and spiritual insights, with a broad scope covering rituals, mythology, philosophy (e.g., Vedanta), and social structures (e.g., caste). These texts, combined with oral traditions and lived practices, provide a treasure trove for scholars. Even she specifically penned down Dashavatar’s hypothesis based on Charles Darwin’s evolution theory.
Prof. Nandini Sahu commented that historically, Hindu Studies in the West has been shaped by colonial scholars who sometimes framed Hinduism through a Eurocentric lens. Critics, like Edward Said – inspired post-colonial thinkers, argue that this led to misrepresentations —exoticizing Hinduism as “mystical” or reducing it to a monolith, ignoring its diversity.
But in my opinion, it is also true that above Hindu Texts and contexts are often prioritizes elite Sanskrit texts (e.g., Vedas) over vernacular traditions, folk practices, or the lived religion of millions. This skews the understanding towards the Brahmanical perspective, sidelining Dalit, tribal, or regional voices
In the 3rd chapter, “The Hindu Philosophical Schools”, Prof. Sahu has discussed in detail about two types of schools – Astik and Nastik. In the Astik school, Nandini Sahu has elaborated on the details of Shankhya, Yoga, Nayaya, Mimansa, Vaisesika, and Vedanta.
Meanwhile, Nandini Sahu threw light on the philosophies of Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka in the Nastik school.
Nandini Sahu expanded her views on existentialism and non-violence principle of Gandhiji as a global ethics by saying that –
“ Mahatma Gandhi propagated the Hindu principle of Ahimsa (nonviolence) as a political and ethical discipline, that eventually impacted Civil Rights Movements across this globe, most notably in the work of Martin Luther King Jr., or Nelson Mandela. Gandhi grounded his reading of Ahimsa in Jain and Hindu traditions, but framed it universally. He famously stated, “The law of love will work, just as the law of gravitation will work, whether we accept it or not… The doctrine of Ahimsa tells us that we may guard the honor of those who are under our charge by delivering ourselves and our dear ones from the oppressor. He who believes in Ahimsa is prepared to die for it” (Nandini Sahu, 92)”.
In the 4th chapter “Rituals, Practices and Traditions of Devotion”, she has vividly described about Sanskar, Puja, Pilgrimage, Bhakti Movement, Role of festivals in Hindu religious life, as well as key figures of Bhakti movement such as Kabir, Mirabai and Tulsidas etc. In 5th chapter, “Hindu Social and Ethical Knowledge System”, she mentions four Varnas, four Ashrams, the caste system, the contemporary perspective, reforms, as well as gender roles and social hierarchy as per Manu Smriti.She says,
“The Manusmriti delineates women’s roles, focusing on their duties in the family and home. According to the text, “a woman must always be a devoted wife and mother, and her primary duty is to serve her husband” (Manusmriti 5.154). This is a reflection of the patriarchal status quo, where roles for women are primarily indicative of being at home.” (Nandini Sahu, 128)
Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru, in his famous book ‘Discovery of India,’ stated that the coming of the Aryans into India raised new social and political problems. The conquered race, the Dravidians, had a long background of Civilization behind them, but there is little doubt that the Aryans considered themselves vastly superior, and a wide gulf separated the two races. Then there were also the backward aboriginal tribes, nomads or forest dwellers. Out of this conflict and interaction of races gradually arose the caste system, which, in the course of succeeding centuries, affected Indian life profoundly. Probably caste was neither Aryan nor Dravidian. It was an attempt at social organization of different races, a rationalization of the facts as they existed at the time. It brought degradation in its terrain afterward, and it is still a burden and a curse, but we can hardly judge it from subsequent standards or later developments.
B. R. Ambedkar had elaborately given the details about theories for the formation of Shudras in his book – Who were the Shudras?
It is general proposition that the social organization of the Indo-Aryan was based on the theory of Chaturvarnya, and that Chaturvarnya means division of society into four classes
(1) Brahmins (Priests)
(2) Kshatriyas (Soldiers)
(3) Vaishyas (Traders)
(4) Shudras (Menials)
Unfortunately, more than this is involved in Chaturvarnaya’s theory. Besides dividing society into four orders, the theory goes further. It makes the principle of graded inequality – The basis for determining the terms of associated life as between the four Varnas. Again, the system of graded inequality is not merely notional. It is legal and penal. Under the system of Chaturvarnaya, the Shudra is not only placed at the bottom of the gradation but he is subjected to innumerable hegemonies and disabilities so as to prevent him from rising above the condition fixed for him by law. Indeed, until the fifth Varna of the Untouchables came into being, the Shudras were in the eyes of the Hindus the lowest of the low. This shows the nature of what might be called the problem of the Shudras.
The 19th Hymn of tenth Mandala of the Rig Veda – which is known by the famous name of Purusha Sukta. “The Brahman was His mouth, the Rajanya was made His arms, the being called Vaishya, he was His thighs, the Shudras sprang from His feet.”
The Purusha Sukta is a theory of the origin of the Universe. In other words, it is a cosmogony. No nation that has reached an advanced degree of thought has failed to develop some sort of cosmogony. The constitution of society prescribed by Purusha Sukta in known as Chaturvarnaya. As a divine injunction, it naturally became the ideal of the Indo-Aryan society.
As per Hindu Shastras, the Antyajas should live and have their abode outside the village. For instance, Manu says:
1. The dwellings of the Chandalas and the Shvapakas shall be outside the village, they must be Apapatra and their wealth shall be dogs and donkeys.
2. Their dress shall be the garments of dead; they shall eat their food from broken dishes, black iron shall be their ornaments, and they must always wander from place to place.
3. A man who fulfils a religious duty, shall not seek intercourse with them, their transactions shall be among themselves and their marriages with their equals.
4. Their food shall be given to them by others (other than an Aryan giver) in a broken dish at night, they shall not walk about in villages and in towns.
5. By day, they may go about for the purpose of their work distinguished by mark at king’s command, and they shall carry out the corpses (of person) who have no relatives; that is a settled rule.
6. By the King’s order, they shall always execute the criminals in accordance with the law, and they shall take for themselves the clothes, the beds and the ornaments of such ‘criminals’
It reflected that the untouchables originally lived inside the village and that then when the stigma of untouchability fell on them, they were forced to vacate and live outside the village. The untouchability exists all over India. The transplantation of untouchables from within the village to outside the village is vast operation.
In the 6th chapter, “Hindu Arts, Architecture and Iconography”, Prof Nandini Sahu gives brief details about Murti, Yantra, Mandal, the Role of Dance and Drama, Concepts of Natya-Shastra of Bharat Muni, as well as architecture styles consisting of Nagar, Dravid, Vasara etc.
Vedic Architecture and Temple:-
Architecture in India was an extremely rich form of expression and highly developed science with a deep heritage of spirituality in it. It is evident that one of the primary purposes of much of the significant architecture was to display the prevailing spiritual consciousness of the people.
The Mandirs were composed of various parts, which included the Garbhagriha or Sanctum, the Sukanasi or nose of the structure, the Antarala or adjoining passage, the Mandapa or main hall, the Dhwaja Sthambha or flag post and the Balipeeth for the pedestal for the offerings.(12) The temple was the microcosm that effected the macrocosm or the symbol of cosmic being.
The Atharva Veda contains several hymns on the topic in its Shala-Nirmana-Sutra. Additional Sanskrit literature that contained references to architecture included Agni Purana, the Brihat Samhita and Artha Shastra and the Vastu Shastra texts (a part of Sthapatya Veda, which is an Up-Veda of the Atharvaveda).
In the 7th chapter “Modernity and Hinduism”, Prof. Sahu has emphasized over contribution of Brahma Samaj, Prathana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishna Mission and Theosophical Society in addition to the threats to Hindu identity, Synthesis of religion and Politics by Gandhiji, Globalization of Hindu spiritualism etc. But in the 8th chapter, “Hinduism in Global Context”, she has covered the works of ISKCON, Transcendental Meditation, Maharshi Effect, and Art of Living.
In the 9th chapter, “Class, Caste and Gender: Critical Perspective and Discourses”, she has given some illustrations about the law of Manu, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishad and some examples of feminist critique, subaltern voices, and recovery of women’s history, etc. Some chapters of Manu Smriti advocate –
V.30 The eater, who daily even devours those destined to be his food, commits no sin; for the Creator himself created both the eaters and those who are to be eaten (for those special purposes).
V.56 There is no sin in eating meat, in (drinking) spirituous liquor, and in carnal intercourse, for that is the natural way of created beings, but abstention brings great rewards.
V.27. One may eat meat when it has been sprinkled with water, while Mantras were recited, when Brahmanas desire (one’s doing it), when one is engaged (in the performance of a rite) according to the law, and when one’s life is in danger.
V.35. But a man, who, being duly engaged (to officiate or to dine at a sacred rite), refuses to eat meat, becomes after death an animal during twenty-one existences.
But later on, Brahmins became vegetarian. As per Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar it was the strategy that Brahmin give up beef eating and start worshiping the cow. It was adopted by Brahmanism to establish its supremacy over Buddhism.
Buddhism was at one time the religion of the majority of people of India. It continued to be the religion of masses for hundreds of years. It attacked Brahmanism on all sides as no religion had done before. Brahmins had lost all power and prestige at the Royal court and among the people. After the death of Buddha his followers started setting up the images of Buddha and building Stupas. The Brahmins followed it. They in their turn, built temples and installed in them images of Shiva, Vishnu and Ram and Krishna etc. – all with the object of drawing away the crowd that was attracted by the image worship of Buddha. That is how temples and images which had no place in Brahmanism came into Hinduism. I agree with this conclusion of Dr. Ambedkar. Moreover, it may be corroborated with the probable reason of idol-worshipping as given in Satyarth Prakash of Swami Dayanand.
In last chapter 10th, “Navigating New frontiers : Critical reflection and Emerging Paradigm”, an interdisciplinary approach has been integrated by the writer with a focus on diverse perspectives, from analyzing Sanskrit literature to studying modern Hindu diaspora communities, making it dynamic and multifaceted.
At last, it can be said without any exaggeration that the 10 chapters of Nandini Sahu’s “Hindu Studies: Foundations and Frameworks” are important literary works based on a multidisciplinary approach to understanding Hinduism. She has analyzed various aspects of ‘Hindu Studies’. Readers can go through them critically to quench their thirst as well as participate in contemporary debates and diverse perspectives.
REFERENCES
1. Suresh Soni, India’s Glorious Scientific Tradition, Ocean Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2010, p. 199.
2. Kamlesh Kapur, Portraits of a Nations: History of India, Sterling Publishers, Private Limited, 2010, p. 401.
3. Pride of India: A Glimpse into India’s Scientific Heritage, Samskriti Bharati, New Delhi, 2006, p. 130.
4. Bageshwar Dham- Dheerendra Shastri, Sanatan Dharm , Empty Canvas Publishing, New Delhi, 2024, p. 20
5. Arun Shourie, The New Icon: Savarkar and Facts, India Viking, New Delhi, 2025
6. Sri Aurobindo, Foundations of Indian Culture, Arvind Ahsram, India, 1988
7. Nandini Sahu, Sita (A Poem), The Poetry Society of India, Gurugram, 2015
8. Arun Shourie, Worshhiping False Gods, Harper India, 2012
9. Myths, Legends concepts and literary antiquities of India – Manoj Das, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2024
10. Discovery of India, Jawahar Lal Nehru, Penguin India, 2024
11. The Secret teaching of Vedas, Stephen Knapp, Jaico Publishing House, 1993
12. Dr B.R.Ambedkar, Who were Shudra?, Prabhat Prakashan, New Delhi, 2022
13.. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, The Untouchables: Who were they and why they became untouchables?, Namaskar Books, New Delhi, 2023
14. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development, Arjun Publishing House, New Delhi, 2020
15. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Annihilation of Caste, Prabhat Prakashan, New Delhi, 2022
About the Author:
Dinesh Kumar Mali is from Talcher, Odisha.
